3.1 Grammar and categorization
3.2 Definition and definitions
3.3 Synchrony and diachrony
3.4 Structural aspects
3.4.1 Closed and open systems: "-emic" and "(e)-tic"
3.4.2 Binary oppositions
3.4.3 Distributional arrays
3.4.4 Paradigms
3.5 Procedures
3.5.1 Trees and nodes
3.5.2 Attribute analysis
3.6 Minimal constituents, morphemes, morphs, allomorphs
3.7 Technique and method
3.1 Grammar and categorization
The notion of a “top-down ontology” (Berners- Lee &al 2008 Semantic, p. 100) puts in a different light the concern that classification may be an arbitrary (“authoritarian”) overlay on reality.
For categorization and indexing in Library Studies, see e.g. Lancaster 2003 Indexing and Miksa 1995 Classification.
– [ Laerke Recht, July 2013]
See Read 2007 Artifact Classification: The book begins with a simple premise that considers the crucial need for organization of any artifacts yielded from the process of the data collection. Beyond the simple narratives and technicalities that usually characterize the process of the data collection in the field, Read seeks to attribute to the process of artifacts classification a particular role which if treated coherently may potentially highlight several matters, including the modes of the production, cultural background, individual choices of the artisan, and patterns of exchange and so on. Indeed, methodology receives a great deal of attention. Read intertwines rather effectively the contributions and impediments of earlier works on classification. Specifically, the book succeeds in highlighting and analyzing two particular matters: 1) it gives exclusive importance to the attributes of the data and somehow implies an inductive methodological approach which if anything has to consider systematically any physical properties; and 2) it remedies considerably the conceptual thinking, with critical comments on classification agendas like that of the “type-variety” noticing that the artifacts properties = culture cannot serve as an enclosed framework that defines a group of artifacts. Rather, by taking a closer focus on specific attributes of artifacts Read centers the classification process into a conceptual scheme into which the parameters that must receive particular attention are the decisions of the artisan. Obviously, culture as a unit, changes over time, restrictions on functional and aesthetic elements, exterior influences must be considered indispensable while classifying and evaluating the attributes of a particular repertoire.
– [ Esmeralda Agolli, March 2014]
Without any doubt, Dunnell offers a coherent and operational approach which in theory seems to fit to any research agenda. However the criticism following his approach regarded the very fact that the archaeological record cannot easily be categorized into groups or classes and even less into belonging cultural group. Indeed, Dunnell does offer a neat scheme of concepts and classification, but it is also true that the enclosed system of groups and classes that he defines in practice do not necessarily bring predictive and objective conclusions as he claims.
– [ Esmeralda Agolli, March 2014]
For problems in the method of typology and seriation, especially in relation to determining time sequences, see Olivier 1999 Archaeological Funerary Assemblages.
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On the use of types to create seriation and for the use of dating, see Obrien & Lyman 2002 Epistemological Nature Archaeological Units.
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Some of the standard works on the topic within archaeology include Adams & Adams 1987 Concept, Adams & Adams 2007 Artifact, Krieger 1944 Typological Concept, Spaulding 1953 Statistical Techniques, Bernbeck 1997 Theorien (Ch. 10), Schiffer & Skibo 1997 Explanation.
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On typology, see Cowgill 1982 Archaeological Classification.
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Classification a field in its own right: Eggert 2001 Prähistorische, Ch. X.
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Taxonomy: Gardin 1980 Archaeological, Ch. 3.
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Cf. Obrien & Lyman 2002 Epistemological Nature Archaeological Units on archaeological units.
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Theoretical dimension, Read 1982 Theory Classification; Rouse 1960 Classification Artifacts; Vierra 1982 Typology.
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3.3 Synchrony and diachrony
Note the following statement by Panofsky 1955 Meaning, p. 7: “If we knew by some concatenation of circumstances that a certain Negro sculpture had been executed in 1510, it would be meaningless to say that it was “contemporaneous” with Michelangelo’s Sistine ceiling.” In contrast with this, I would say that indeed the two are contemporaneous, but not synchronic.
For different ways of perceiving time inherent in archaeological methods, see Mc Glade 1999 Times Of History, Cremo 1999 Puranic Time, Agrawal &al 1999 Indian Time.
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On the concept of “event”, see Lucas 2008 Time And Event.
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Cf. Lucas 2015 Archaeology And Contemporaneity.
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3.4.1 Closed and open systems: "-emic" and "(e)-tic"
With regard to the inappropriateness of the term -etic, it is interesting to note that the term itself was introduced by a linguist, Kenneth W. Pike, who certainly would have had a sensitivity for such matters, see Headland 1990 Emics. Cf. also Buccellati G 2006emic.
For discussions on -emic/-etic and open/closed systems, see Ammerman 1992 Quantitative Archaeology and Cassirer 2000 Substanzbegriff Und Funktionsbegriff. Cf. also Buccellati G 2006emic.
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Emic system: Hayden 1984 Emic Types.
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3.5.2 Attribute analysis
On attributes: Brown 1982 Artifact Typology; Hodson 1982 Archaeological Classification; Cowgill 1982 Archaeological Classification; Spaulding 1982 Structure Archaeological Data.
– [ Laerke Recht, July 2016]